The adoption of coal as fuel in the kilns profoundly impacted the visual characteristics of Yaozhou celadon. Before this change, wood was used, which burns with a long flame and needs large fireboxes. Coal, on the other hand, burns with a short flame and needs a smaller, more concentrated fuel source.
Based on the search results, the following can be said about the fuel sources and their effects on the ceramics produced at the major Chinese kiln complexes:
Yaozhou Kilns
- The Yaozhou kilns in Shaanxi province fired their ceramics using wood fuel during the Five Dynasties period (907-960 CE).[1][4]
- The switch to coal fuel occurred in the Song dynasty, around the 11th-12th centuries CE.[1]
- The use of coal resulted in a shorter flame length, which led to the development of a narrower, taller “mantou” style kiln.[2] This allowed for more efficient stacking of wares in saggars.
- The coal firing also produced more clinker, which was dealt with by creating deeper ash pits in the kilns.[2]
- The Yaozhou kilns were able to maintain their signature iron-rich reduced green glazes even with the switch to coal firing.[2]
- Transparency: The higher temperatures and prolonged firing allowed for the complete melting of all glaze components, resulting in a transparent glaze that no longer obscured the body or slip decoration beneath.
- Olive-green hue: Coal burning emits sulfur, which combined with iron in the glaze, produced an olive-green hue that became characteristic of Yaozhou celadon.
- Enhanced decoration: The transparent glaze highlighted the carved and impressed motifs on the body, making them more visually prominent and aesthetically pleasing.
Cizhou Kilns
- The Cizhou kilns in northern China (Hebei, Henan, Shanxi, Shandong provinces) used wood as the primary fuel source during the Song dynasty.[1]
- In the Jin and Yuan dynasties (13th-14th centuries CE), the Cizhou kilns began producing wares with overglaze red and green enamel decorations, in addition to their traditional sgraffito black glazed wares.[1]
- The switch to coal firing likely occurred around this time in the Cizhou kiln network, as coal was abundant in northern China.[2]
- The coal firing resulted in a more oxidizing atmosphere compared to the wood-fired kilns, leading to the warm toned glazes seen on Cizhou wares.[2]
Ding Kilns
- The Ding kilns in Hebei province used wood as the fuel source from the late Tang dynasty through the Jin dynasty (9th-13th centuries CE).[1][4][5]
- Like the Yaozhou kilns, the Ding kilns also switched to coal firing in the Song dynasty, around the 11th-12th centuries CE.[2]
- The coal firing allowed the Ding kilns to develop their characteristic white porcelain wares with a transparent, slightly bluish glaze known as “qingbai” or “yingqing”.[4]
- The shorter coal flame length led the Ding kilns to adopt a narrower, taller “mantou” style kiln design, similar to the Yaozhou kilns.[2]
Longquan Kilns
- The Longquan kilns in Zhejiang province, known for their celadon wares, utilized wood as the primary fuel source throughout their production history.[3]
- The abundant woodland resources in the Longquan region allowed them to maintain wood-firing, unlike the northern kilns that switched to coal.[3]
- The wood-firing produced the characteristic cool-toned, reduced celadon glazes associated with Longquan wares.[2]
Jingdezhen Kilns
- The Jingdezhen kilns in Jiangxi province, the center of porcelain production, also used wood as the fuel source in their early history.[2][4]
- However, the search results do not provide specific details on when Jingdezhen may have switched to coal firing, if at all.
- Jingdezhen was known for its fine, white “qingbai” or “yingqing” porcelain wares during the Song dynasty, similar to the Ding kilns’ products.[4]
In summary, the major Chinese kiln complexes transitioned from wood to coal firing during the Song dynasty, around the 11th-12th centuries CE. This switch impacted kiln design, glaze colors, and firing atmospheres, with the northern kilns like Yaozhou and Ding adapting to the shorter coal flame length, while the southern Longquan kilns maintained wood-firing. Jingdezhen’s fuel source transition is less clear from the available information.
Citations:
[1] https://www.chineseantiques.co.uk/a-brief-history-of-chinese-ceramics/
[2] https://www.lse.ac.uk/Economic-History/Assets/Documents/Research/GEHN/LesTreilles/TreillesVainkerPaper.pdf
[3] https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12520-021-01464-4
[4] https://www.britannica.com/art/Chinese-pottery/The-Five-Dynasties-907-960-and-Ten-Kingdoms-902-978
[5] http://www.koh-antique.com/authenticate/ding.html
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